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C00005 00003	\F2\CPROPOSAL TO DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION
C00010 00004	\F2\CEQUIPMENT PROPOSAL
C00014 00005	Subsidiary proposal for 50% credit on 2 VAX 11/750 systems:
C00015 00006	\F2\CBACKGROUND
C00025 00007	\F0\CProjects
C00029 00008	\JSensory Technology:  Historically, we have done considerable work in 
C00037 00009	\F2\CVISION PROJECTS
C00046 00010	\F0\CACCOMPLISHMENTS
C00060 00011	\F0\CREFERENCES      
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\F2\CPROPOSAL TO DIGITAL EQUIPMENT CORPORATION

\F2\CROBOTICS LABORATORY
\F2\CSTANFORD ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE LABORATORY
\F2\CCOMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT
\F2\CSTANFORD UNIVERSITY

\CApril 1982

\F0\CThomas O. Binford
\CAdjunct Professor of Computer Science


\F2\CSUMMARY

\F0\JThe Robotics Laboratory of Stanford University proposes a joint effort with
Digital Equipment Corporation in automation for manufacturing.  In support of
the joint effort and the research program of the Robotics Laboratory, we request
a gift of 50% credit on a VAX computer system described in detail in a later 
section.  We also propose that DEC provide 50% credit on a VAX 11/750 system
to be used as a dedicated processor for vision and inspection in conjunction
with manipulation.  We further propose that DEC provide 50% credit for a
second VAX 11/750 system to be used for a dedicated robotic workstation 
controller.\.

\F2\CPROPOSED EFFORT

\F0\JWe propose to study language systems for workstation controllers
in integrated  manufacturing systems.
We plan to study examples of how such language would be used in an
industrial environment, how it can be used by manufacturing personnel,
and special SCRIPT-like language for their use.
We plan to study the hardware and software interfacing of industrial workstations.
We plan to investigate synchronization, debugging, and world modeling 
in languages for workstation controllers.

Some of our ongoing research efforts may be of interest to DEC.  We propose to:\.
\j[1] provide DEC with direct access to results of our research;\.
\j[2] to consider DEC's problems in our research on automation, and to test
and evaluate some of our systems on examples typical of DEC's problems;\.
\j[3] to assist DEC in limited ways to transfer some of our results to their
facilities.\.

\F2\CAPPROACH

\F0\JWe propose to study these issues in relation to extensions to the AL system
for programmable automation.  Stanford has developed AL, and has made a portable
version in PASCAL on a PDP11/45 running RSX-11.  We plan to see to what extent 
modifications and extensions of AL are natural in order to function as a workstation
controller.  We will compare AL with MCL and AML, and with ADA for its synchronization
capabilities.

We are not aware of an adequate language in use by manufacturing engineers 
for describing mechanical tasks and assembly operations.  
We have implemented MSM as a system based on MTM, a widely-used system for analysis
of human tasks and assemblies.  MSM embodies ideas and implementation toward
a system which formalizes assembly and which is natural to manufacturing
engineers.  MSM is implemented in AL.  
We have also carried out kinematic analysis of some assembly operations.\.
\F2\CEQUIPMENT PROPOSAL

\F0\JThe original proposal was for a large VAX system to support the vision
and robotics efforts as a shared resource.  Some prices below are taken from
our purchase order; we understand that some of these prices have increased
since our purchase order, but that the order entitles us to quote them for
the purpose of this proposal.

We also request special consideration for a payment schedule for the system.
We propose to delay payment on a small portion of the system until we receive
a second increment of equipment funds, scheduled for October 1, but traditionally
subject to delay of several months.

 We add a subsidiary proposal for
two VAX 11/750 systems for dedicated service:
one system for a real-time inspection and vision system for experimentation at the robotics
workstations; a second system dedicated to AL and ACRONYM development at the
robotics workstations.\.
\F4
VAX 11/780 system							
  SV-AXVCB-CK						$319,100 -12%  $280,808
    VAX 11/780
    3 MB memory
    2 memory controllers
    RP07 516 MB disk, controller, 2.2 MB kit
    TU78 tape drive with controller
    DZ11-A 8-line synchronous multiplexer
    LA 120 console terminal
    VMS license to copy
    H9602 cabinet for second memory controller
  FP780-AA floating point processor			  10,600 -12%     9,328
  RP07-AA 516 MB fixed disk drive		          38,000 -12%    33,440
  RP07-D 1.3 MB/sec to 2.2 MB/sec upgrade kit			N/C
  REM03-AA						  30,300 -12%    26,664
  DW780-AA second UNIBUS				  12,900 -12%    11,352
  DR11-W				2 at 	$1650	   3,300 -12%     2,904
  insurance
  documentation
  DZ-11B 8-line multiplexer	    			   2,050 -12%     1,804
  5 MB memory at $5000 per MB			          25,000         25,000
     									_______
					Total			       $391,300
					50% of total		       $195,650
Payment Schedule

We propose to pay $170,000 on acceptance of the VAX system, and the remainder, the
sum of $25,650 upon receipt of our second increment of equipment funding.  The
second increment is approved and scheduled for October 1, but subject to delays
of the order of two months.


Subsidiary proposal for 50% credit on 2 VAX 11/750 systems:

VAX11/750 system
  SV-BXWAA-AA							     $120,000
    RM80
    TS11
    DZ11-A    8 lines multiplexer
    1 MB memory
  1 MB additional memory					       $5,000
  floating point accelerator
  DR11-W							       $1,650
\F2\CBACKGROUND
\CRESEARCH PROGRAM OF THE ROBOTICS LABORATORY

\F0\JThe Robotics Laboratory carries out a broad research program in computer vision
and manipulation, including:\.

\j⊗  design: design of a three finger hand; design of advanced manipulators;\.

\j⊗  dynamics and control of manipulators: multiple, cooperating manipulators;
      end point sensing and visual tracking; adaptive control;\.

\j⊗  task level force sensory control: sensor technology; interfacing;
      analysis of force strategies; high level language for force control;
      teaching force strategies;\.

\j⊗  programming systems for programmable assembly: the AL system has an interpreter,
        force control, source language debugging; graphics for debugging and experimentation
      with force control;\.

\j⊗   next generation of programming systems for robots:  geometric modeling 
      with geometric reasoning;
      offline programming; integrating sensing and vision;\.

\j⊗  inspection: development of an intermediate level industrial vision system with
      less sensitivity to lighting, greater discrimination of shape, however 2D;
    discrimination of essential from cosmetic flaws;\.

\j⊗  ACRONYM integrated vision system:  ACRONYM combines geometric modeling with
      geometric reasoning in the form of a rule-based system; ACRONYM integrates
      interpretation with stereo vision and ranging, and includes edge-based segmentation.\.

\j⊗  VLSI implementation of vision operations.\.

\CHistory

\F0\JThe robotics program at Stanford  was begun by John McCarthy in 1965
at the  Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.
It now serves as the focus for most robotics activity at Stanford University.

Research in robotics at the AI Lab includes five major headings:\.
\F4  
        computer vision;
        manipulation;
        mobile robots;
        geometric modeling;
	hardware.

\F0
\JThe benefit of building these systems is that students 
can start immediately at the state of the art; they 
don't have to start at ground zero.  Projects can be continuous and large,
not limited to a single student project.  They provide an experimental system
in which to integrate results in a way that provides increasingly powerful
capability by combining modules.  The approach provides a way of testing
the generality of modules by testing them with others in new problems.
These systems provide a means of technology transfer.  An important
problem of utilizing technology is total system integration.
Our background of building systems and our current systems give us a big
advantage in technology utilization.

We have focussed on important applications to find fundamental
problems whose solutions would provide breakthroughs in these applications.
One part of the effort is problem-solving, another is problem-finding.  
In problem-solving, we find general, theoretical mechanisms to solve 
the central problems, implement these mechanisms in software and hardware,
integrate the mechanisms in systems like AL, and analyze performance.
In problem-finding, we analyze applications, analyze robotics capabilities,
identify fundamental problems, formalize these problems, and explore
theoretical and practical performance limitations.

Thus, there is a combined focus on implementation and theory.
At the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, 
robotics is a large program with about 25 people involved on a continuous basis
and more intermittently.  Overall, the Stanford program is considerably larger.\.


\F0\CProjects


\JManipulator design:  We have collaborated for 15 years with
Prof Bernard Roth, Mechanical Engineering Dept.  We now
collaborate  with Carl Ruoff, JPL,
on design and control of a three-finger hand with nine degrees of freedom,
a "universal gripper".  The
motivation for the hand is to provide fine control of forces in assembly
and tool using, and to provide the relevant degrees of freedom for repositioning
objects after grasping for subsequent assembly operations.  This is a research effort;
we expect that further effort will be necessary to make a 
rugged and reliable hand that can be used in industrial work.
Conceptual design including theoretical work, and detailed design are complete.
The fabrication of the hand is complete.  A controller is under construction.
Elegant theoretical analysis for control of the hand has been accomplished.
Work in optimizing the design of the hand has resulted in 
significant theoretical contributions [Salisbury 81] and form the basis of
the forthcoming PhD thesis of K. Salisbury.
Future work will include collaboration with the MIT AI Laboratory.

Dynamics and control:  We collaborate with the control group of the
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics (Prof Robert Cannon and
Prof Dan Debra, with some consulting by Prof Art Bryson) on a number of important 
problems in dynamics and control of robots.  Impressive results have been
obtained in high speed slewing of flexible manipulators.
We are investigating
problems of end point sensing, tracking, load estimation, flexibility, making use of
contact sensing, closed loop kinematic chains including two cooperating manipulators 
and three finger hands; and
non-collocated sensor and actuators.
These efforts bring modern control theory to bear on deep problems which come
from making efficient use of robots by running them at high speeds rather than
degrading their performance by slowing them down, and problems which arise in
using sensing.\.

\JSensory Technology:  Historically, we have done considerable work in 
technology for force and contact sensing [Binford 72]. Our 
Scheinman force sensing wrist [Scheinman 74] is one of the first
successful wrists to measure force-torque to high accuracy.
The wrist has been a basic component in industrial automation studies
involving two manipulators working in synchrony [Shimano, 
sprinkler].
We are about to begin new work in collaboraton with Prof Larry Leifer of
Mechanical Engineering,
and Prof John Shaw of Applied Physics on contact sensors using piezoelectric
polymers and array techniques.  We also plan to make integrated circuit
versions of sensor interfaces for strain gage sensors for the Scheinman
force sensing wrist, using capabilities of Stanford's Integrated Circuits lab,
Department of Electric Engineering.  We are currently designing force-sensing
fingers to complement force sensing wrists, to provide greater sensitivity
to small forces, and to minimize the mass between sensor and load to minimize
inertial forces caused by accelerations.\.

\JPUMA consortium:  We have organized a consortium of users of the Unimate PUMA
to instrument the PUMA robots.  Stanford is taking the lead in providing 
resources for a pooled effort to provide: electric hands with two fingers;
wrist force sensors; and finger sensors.  A hand has been fabricated
at Stanford.  A company, Robot Technology Inc, has formed to provide instrumentation for PUMAs.
The effort will have the benefit
of providing common equipment and pooling effort while saving cost.
The hand to be used is not the same as the three-finger hand which was described
above.  For the consortium, a conservative design with two degrees of freedom
is being made.  It is designed to be modified to a three finger version with three 
degrees of freedom.  Another hand with one degree of freedom is being built.\.

\JForce control and programmable compliance:  Stanford has completed a 
general and powerful analytic method for force control of robots
providing programmable compliance for assembly operations.  The mechanism
has been implemented in the AL system and has been tested in experiments
over several years.  Studies are underway on fundamental theoretical
limits to force control in exerting small, controlled forces; these studies 
will influence control and strategies
for force control, and will lead to studies of design of manipulators for
sensitive force control.\.

\JProgramming Systems for robots:  Stanford completed the AL system for
programming robots.  Currently, we are completing a portable version of
AL in PASCAL for a standalone PDP11 in the RSX11 operating system.
A small subset of AL will also be made available for small computer configurations.
The full system will include an interpreter and source language debugger
with force control, multiple device control, and software servos.
AL currently has all these capabilities.  
Plans call for release late in the year.
An AL subset has been implemented at Karlsruhe, Germany, and a language closely
patterned after AL has been implemented at the University of Tokyo by Prof Inoue.
A simulator for mechanical systems has been implemented [Soroka 80].  It will
be extended to include dynamics and control.  The simulator is written in
ACRONYM and simulates AL language programs.
Studies are underway on analysis of assembly from two standpoints: the first
is to measure times involved in fragments of assembly steps to quantify
systems issues in speeding up assemblies; the second effort is a profound
kinematic analysis of assembly from the standpoint of screw theory 
[Ohwovoriole 80] led by Prof Roth.
Work has begun on the next generation of robot programming systems, based
on a study of requirements for: a hierarchy of languages; vision; geometric
modeling; off-line programming; simulation; and planning.  The study will 
poll industry requirements.  ACRONYM provides a good basis for a new design.

Mobile robots: In collaboration with Prof Leifer of Mechanical Engineering
and Unimation, Inc, we will continue a long tradition of  research in mobile robots [Moravec 80].
This effort is intended to lead to a product as one of the results.
 A new vehicle has
been built.  Stanford will do the navigation, control, and perception.
Stanford has demonstrated navigation of a robot cart in semi-realistic
environments, mapping its world by stereo perception, and planning paths
around obstacles determined by vision.

A current proposal of Prof Roth to NSF involves a basic study into the
allocation of degrees of freedom in robotic systems.  Also, he expects
to initiate a new study on universal terminal devices for manipulators.\.

\F2\CVISION PROJECTS

\F0\JIntermediate Level Vision System:  We think that current industrial
vision systems have weak capabilities that limit the number of applications
that they can accomplish, and which necessitate extensive engineering for
those applications for which they are adequate. 
Industrial vision systems use thresholding to get binary pictures, and use
simple shape descriptors for two-dimensional images and models.
 A part of our work is directed toward grey-scale edge-based techniques with
effective shape descriptors which can be implemented with currently available
hardware at reasonable cost.

VLSI implementation of vision operators:  A single element of an array
of processors has been fabricated, tested, and found to be correct.  The
next step is to make a 10x10 array of processors and then a 100x100 array,
using a fault-tolerant design [Miller 81].  This processor is not the final answer to
high speed vision, but it is one part of the learning process.  Two phases
are essential: the first is architecture of vision operations; the second is
VLSI implementation of well-defined operations.

ACRONYM:  A powerful system combines geometric modeling 
with state-of-the-art problem-solving in the form of geometric reasoning,
and integrated low level visual operations [Brooks 81]. 
 ACRONYM is a three dimensional vision system.  It
is being converted to a VAX in a LISP dialect, and will be included in the
Image Understanding Program Testbed.  It will be made available on license
in about 18  months and  is expected  to be  useful for  research.  It  is
already  used by one company  on a DOD contract.
The system will be pushed forward extensively in the next few years.
It is the underlying system for a sophisticated stereo effort for Defense
Mapping Agency, for
programmable inspection, for planning in programming robots, for the next 
generation of programming languages,
and more.  For example, a program for picking grasping points of objects was
written as a rule base in ACRONYM.  All of the work below is or will be integrated
as a part of ACRONYM.  ACRONYM is beginning to be applied to one of the
examples of the GM bin of parts series.  Our aim is not to duplicate work
done at the
University of Rhode Island on bin-picking for simple parts, but to demonstrate
a general model-based system on more complex parts.\.

\JEdge finding:  Work is underway to develop high performance edge finders
involving simplification of the Binford-Horn edge finder, and with
sophistication to provide higher performance still.  Impressive results have
been obtained and rapid progress is being made.  These techniques will be
reduced to VLSI by first simplifying the architecture and then implementing
in hardware.

Stereo vision:  A proposal has been funded to carry out one part of a program
to provide the Defense Mapping Agency with a feasibility demonstration system
for automated stereo cartography.  Stanford has made extensive progress in
automated stereo; we are in close contact with other organizations doing stereo.
We are evaluating their results and analyzing various contributions.  
Stanford has developed three previous stereo systems.
Our progress is especially rapid now in stereo vision.

Structured Light:  We are planning to resume work in structured light,
based on past work.  Stanford was one of the originators of the technique in 1970,
along with ETL, Tokyo, and IBM.  

Inferring Surfaces from Images:  Theoretical work of about two years ago
provides the outline of an incomplete theory for understanding images of
quite general scenes [Binford 81].  The results are surprising powerful and general.
Some results have been implemented in determining a three dimensional model
for an aircraft from a single image, using shadows [Lowe 81].  These results will be
extended greatly.  They provide the basis for effective stereo, and for
three dimensional industrial vision and inspection systems.\.

\,
\F0\CACCOMPLISHMENTS

\F0\JRobotics research has led to products.  The Scheinman arm led to
the MIT arm by Scheinman.
Several dozens of these arms were built and used by various research groups.
It has been one of the major research arms.  These developments
led to the arm produced internally by
Texas Instruments, and led to the Unimate PUMA.  The VAL system
was based on our second software system, WAVE, and was programmed by
one of our graduate students, Bruce Shimano, while he was working on
his PhD degree.  It appears widely recognized that Unimation got a 
lot out of the PUMA development.  It is not so widely recognized that
the VAL software system was also important.

The Scheinman wrist force sensor was produced for three research laboratories
other than Stanford (JPL, GM, NBS).  The design is the basis for several recent
sensor developments, including one by Unimation which may lead to a product.

The basic kinematic classification
of manipulators, solvability of manipulator configurations, 
the use of Denavit and Hartenberg matrices, modeling of
the manipulator as a closed kinematic chain, and the first
obstacle avoidance system were introduced by Pieper and Roth.
They are now standard tools.  The first work on dynamic modeling and optimal
control of manipulators was due to Kahn and Roth.
Roth showed how to optimize the kinematic structure of manipulators,
and Shimano and Roth showed how to use line geometry to define optimal structures
of manipulators.\.

\JBinford originated "structured light", independently 
along with ETL, Tokyo, with contributions from IBM [Binford 71].
Structured light has
broad importance as the basis for practical ranging devices.  Many uses of it
are under development.

[Binford 71] originated the "generalized cylinder" representation for object shape.
[Agin 72] used it in describing object primitives using structured light.
[Nevatia 74] demonstrated recognition of dolls, toy horses, and tools, using
range data.  The system learned by showing in three dimensions.
A model was put on the table in front of the laser. 
The system built its own models of objects in terms of part/whole graphs
of generalized cylinders.  The system recognized objects when shown in a
different position and orientation, with changed articulation of the object,
and with some obscuration.  The system demonstrated an indexing capability
to determine a subset of similar objects, for example, matching a doll to 
the class of quadripeds.  Indexing was based on stick figures 
using an attachment hierarchy as a coarse description.
This work is still a landmark.

[Paul 72] developed the WAVE programming system for robots (actually our second
system), and demonstrated
he first computer-controlled assembly. 
It used tools, sensing, and vision.
 A number of assemblies were carried
out in that era, including several sub-assemblies of a two-stroke gasoline engine.
It was clear that the complete assembly of the chain saw motor would be more of
the same.  Emphasis was shifted to the two crucial areas of utilizing a robot
in assembly and related tasks, namely sensorimotor control and programming.
AL was designed in 1974 and built in 1975-76.  An AL interpreter, initially
called POINTY, was developed for interactive programming.
Two other groups have developed version of AL for their own use.  AL will be
available under license in 1982.

Force control was used in a primitive way in WAVE.
[Shimano 78] developed a force control system with considerable capbility.
[Salisbury 80] developed a sophisticated system for programmable compliance
and force control which appears to have sufficient speed,
generality, and sensitivity.  This is a good candidate for applications.

ACRONYM is a major advance in three dimensional vision systems [Brooks 81].
It promises to make a substantial contribution for inspection and vision
applications.  It will be available as a research system under license in 
the 1983 time period.

Major advances in inferring surfaces from images may provide significant
capability for bin picking and other three dimensional problems [Binford 81].

Recent advances in edge finding provide a basis for industrial vision systems
based on gray scale.  Advances in stereo may provide an alternative to
structured light for ranging.  The technology appears near the point of
utilization for the Defense Mapping Agency.

A line of development led to autonomous navigation by a
computer-controlled vehicle which used stereo vision to determine
a course around obstacles in a fairly realistic environment, very
slowly.

Based on recent advances, powerful computer vision is much closer to
realization than might have been imagined.  In part this follows from
finding a uniform structure for intermediate level vision operations which
appears implementable in VLSI, in part from progress on stereo, edge finding,
and grouping edges, in part because of theoretical work on interpretation.

Ohwovoriole and Roth showed how to analyze the forces involved in the general 
peg-and-hole assembly, and using screw theory, developed a general
intellectual framework for all parts mating problems.

Leifer, Roth, et al. developed a voice controlled system for rehabilitation
use, currently being tested by the Veterans Administration.\.

\JA specimen of the work of the Guidance and Control Laboratory is the
drag-free satellite.  Over a period of years, Stanford conceived the design,
built, launched, and operated the spacecraft, measuring its performance
and verifying its exceptional precision.  The design was put into use
as the Transit satellite system for ultra-precision fixing of inertial
guidance systems for ballistic missile submarines.  The development
featured sensing systems of almost unbelievable precision.  A follow-on
is application of the satellite concepts in an experiment to test
General Relativity.

Several companies have spun off from this and related projects.
Vicarm, Inc. became Unimation West.  Imagen was started to exploit
graphics printing capabilities.  Many of our students went to SRI
(seven PhDs before a group left to form the AI Center at Fairchild for Schlumberger).
They strongly influenced the work of the SRI industrial automation groups
and vision groups, especially the vision module, which among other things
led to Machine Intelligence Corporation.\.

\CPeople

\JOne of our most important products has been people who have worked in 
robotics and who are now actively contributing in the field of robotics.
A partial list follows:\.
	Donald Pieper - chief engineer, Automatix
	Gerald Gleason - chief engineer, Machine Intelligence Corp
	Jerome Feldman - former chairman, Computer Science, Univ of Rochester
	Raj Reddy - head, Robotics Institute, Carnegie-Mellon Univ
	Gerald Agin - Prof, bio-engineering, Carnegie-Mellon University
	Brian Carlisle - President, Unimation West
	Charles Spaulding - engineer, Unimation West
	Bruce Shimano - Unimation West
	Richard "Lou" Paul - Prof, Purdue University
	Kenneth Waldron - Prof, Ohio State University
	Lung-Wen Tsai - GM Research Labs
	Warren Seering - Asst Prof, MIT
	Barry Soroka - Asst Prof, USC
        J.M.Tenenbaum - Schlumberger
	Lester Earnest - President, Imagen
        R.F. Sproull - Asst Prof, CMU
        R.F. Finkel - Assoc Prof, Univ of Wisconsin
	Anthony Sword - SRI
	Bob Bolles - SRI
	Tom Garvey - SRI
	Rod Brooks - MIT
	Hans Moravec - CMU
        A.Gill - Technion, Israel
        G. Falk - Prof, Rutgers
	Don Gennery - JPL
	Patrick MacVicar-Whelan - Boeing
	Walton Perkins - GM
	Karl Pingle - ESL
	David Grossman - IBM (one year visit)
	Bruce Bullock - Hughes (one year visit)
	Maria Gini - Electrotecnico, Milan, Italy
	Giusepina Gini - Electrotecnico, Milan, Italy
	Michael Kelly - Prof, Georgia Tech
	Irwin Sobel - Columbia Univ
	Ruzena Bajcsy - Prof, Univ of Pennsylvania
	Lynn Quam - Schlumberger
        R.A.Schmidt, Jr -
	Ram Nevatia - Prof, USC
        A. Kay - Xerox
        C.R.Lui - Prof, Purdue Univ
	Bruce Baumgart - consultant
	Marsha Jo Hannah - Lockheed
	Russell Taylor - IBM
	Michael Roderick - Teledyne
	Arthur Thomas - ADAC 
        S. Ganapathy - Prof, Univ of Michigan
	William Gilbert - Texas Instruments
	Casey Cox - Automatix

\F0\CREFERENCES      

\J[Salisbury 81]Salisbury, J.K., J.J.Craig;
"Articulated Hands: Force Control and Kinematic Issues";
Proc Joint Automatic Control Conference, Charlottesville, June 1981.\.

\J[Binford 72]T.O.Binford;
\F0"Sensor Systems for Manipulation";\F0
Conference on Remotely Manned Systems, Pasadena, September 1972.\.

\J[Soroka 80]B.I.Soroka;
"Debugging Robot Programs with a Simulator";
Proc CADCAM-8 Conference, Anaheim, CA, November l980.\.

\J[Ohwovoriole 80]Morgan Ohwovoriole;
"An Extension of Screw Theory and its Application to the Automation of
Industrial Assemblies";
Memo AIM-338 Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, 1980.\.

\J[Moravec 80]H.P.Moravec;
"Obstacle Avoidance and Navigation in the Real World by a Seeing Robot Rover";
AI Lab, Computer Science Dept, Stanford Univ, 1980.\.

\J[Miller 81]Miller, A. and Lowry, M.;
%2"General purpose VLSI chip with fault tolerant hardware
for image processing";%1
Proc Image Understanding Workshop, April 1981.\.

\J[Brooks 81]T.O.Binford, R.A.Brooks;
\F0"Geometric Modeling in Vision for Manufacturing";\F0
Proc Image Understanding Workshop, April 1981.\.

\J[Binford 81]T.O.Binford;
\F0"Inferring Surfaces from Images";\F0
Artificial Intelligence Journal, July 1981.\.

\J[Lowe 81]Lowe, D., T.O.Binford;
\F0"The Interpretation of Three-Dimensonal Structure from Image Curves";\F0
Proc Int Joint Conf on AI, Aug 1981.\.

\J[Binford 71]T.O.Binford;
\F0"Visual Perception by Computer";\F0
IEEE Systems Science and Cybernetics Converence, Miami, December 1971.\.

\J[Agin 72]Agin, G.J.;
"Representation and Description of Curved Objects";
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, Memo
*AIM-173, CS-305, 1972.\.

\J[Nevatia 74]Nevatia, R.;
"Structured Descriptions of Complex Curved Objects for Recognition and
Visual Memory";
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, Memo
⊗AIM-250, CS-464, 1974.\.

\J[Paul 72]Paul, R.;
"Modelling, Trajectory Calculation and Servoing of a Computer Controlled 
 Arm";
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, Memo
*AIM-177, CS-311, November 1972.\.

\J[Shimano 78]Shimano, B.E.;
"The Kinematic Design and Force Control of Computer Controlled Manipulators";
Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Stanford University, Memo
AIM-313, March 1978.\.

\J[Salisbury 80]Salisbury, J.K.;
"Active Stiffne Control of a Manipulator in Cartesian Coordinates";
Proc 19th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Albuquerque, December l980.\.